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A unique set of skin microbiota for each individual

Skin health

The fourth most populated microbial niche in the human body,2 the skin is home to a complex community of microorganisms.2 Bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses live together on the skin in a unique balance specific to each individual, to the point where some investigators speak of an individual microbial fingerprint.5

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Staphylococcus epidermidis

About this article

Created 22 April 2021
Updated 22 July 2024

Each individual is not characterized by one but by multiple skin microbiota. In fact, the skin microbiota varies “horizontally”, according to skin area (face, armpits, etc.), but also “vertically”, according to the layers that make up the skin epithelium.

BACTERIA, FUNGI, VIRUSES AND PARASITES

Although easily accessible, the skin microbiota remains poorly understood. Its density is believed to be low compared to that of the large intestine, instead resembling that of the small intestine, i.e. around 1011 bacteria.1 It is the fourth largest microbial niche in the body in terms of the number of microorganisms, just after the digestive tract, the oral cavity and the vagina.2

It hosts several bacterial phyla (Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes), archaea, and fungal species mainly from the genus Malassezia.2,3 Among the bacterial species identified are included Cutibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis, although the strains present differ depending on the individual, the state of their skin (healthy or otherwise) and the sampling site.3,6

Lastly, although not well described,2 numerous viruses (papillomavirus, adenovirus, etc.) have been identified on the skin of healthy individuals, as well as phages that target C. acnes and S. epidermidis, suggesting the existence of a complex virome. Parasites (such as Demodex mites, etc.), few in number, are even more scantly described.3

“HORIZONTAL” VARIATION ACCORDING TO SKIN AREA

The skin is not a homogeneous habitat. The surface of the skin is acidic, salty and aerobic, whereas the invaginations of the hair follicles offer a lipid-rich and anaerobic environment6.

Three major niches are generally identified based on properties such as pH, temperature, humidity, perspiration levels and lipid content:1,3,4

  • sebaceous areas (face, chest, back) that secrete lipid-rich sebum;
  • dry areas (forearms, palm of the hand);
  • humid areas (armpits, elbow crease, nostril, back of the knee and groin), where numerous sweat glands participate in thermoregulation (sweat), acidify the skin and secrete antibacterial peptides.

Some authors distinguish a fourth area in the foot (nails, heel and space between toes)4 (see table).

These areas are separate ecological niches, each with a unique microbial community: the most exposed and dry areas, such as the hands, are the most diverse; the armpit, which is moist and rich in sweat, is dominated by Corynebacterium and Staphylococcus species; while lipid-rich areas, such as the face, display much less diversity (Cutibacterium bacteria, fungi of the genus Malassezia, and Demodex folliculorum mites).3

Microbiota also vary in density from one skin area to another: from 102 bacteria per cm2 on the fingertips or back, to 106 bacteria per cm2 on the forehead or in the armpits.2

Image

“VERTICAL” VARIATION ACCORDING TO SKIN LAYER

For a long time, it was thought that microbial life in the skin was limited to the epidermis, hair follicles, and sebaceous and sweat glands. However, microorganisms also seem to live in the deeper layers of the skin, i.e., the dermis and the underlying adipose tissue.2

On the skin’s surface, the deeper into the stratum corneum the fewer microorganisms are present.1

Then, from the surface to the subcutaneous regions, the microbiota changes and gradually loses its individual characteristics.4,5

In the dermis and subcutaneous adipose tissues, there seems to be more Proteobacteria while there are less Actinobacteria and Firmicutes than in the epidermis.2

Sources

1 Ederveen THA, Smits JPH, Boekhorst J et al. Skin microbiota in health and disease: From sequencing to biology. J Dermatol. 2020 Oct;47(10):1110-1118.

2 Egert M, Simmering R, Riedel CU. The Association of the Skin Microbiota With Health, Immunity, and Disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2017 Jul;102(1):62-69.

3 Barnard E, Li H. Shaping of cutaneous function by encounters with commensals. J Physiol. 2017 Jan 15;595(2):437-450.

4 Byrd AL, Belkaid Y, Segre JA. The human skin microbiome. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2018;16(3):143-155.

5 Bay L, Barnes CJ, Fritz BG et al. Universal Dermal Microbiome in Human Skin. mBio. 2020 Feb 11;11(1):e02945-19.

6 Chen YE, Fischbach MA, Belkaid Y. Skin microbiota-host interactions. Nature. 2018 Jan 24;553(7689):427-436.

Tags
Dermatology Microbiome Flora
    Focus
    Skin under triple influences : gut, brain, skin microbiota
    • The skin microbiota
      • A unique set of skin microbiota for each individual
      • Factors affecting the skin microbiota
      • Functions of the microbiota and its interactions with the host
    • Skin diseases associated with a dysbiosis
      • Skin diseases associated with a dysbiosis
      • Non-pathological skin conditions associated with a dysbiosis
    • The gut-skin axis
      • Psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, rosacea: gut-skin axis involved
      • A gut-brain-skin axis?
    • Modulating the skin microbiota
      • Modulating the skin microbiota via topical applications
      • Modulating the skin microbiota with oral solutions
    • Expert opinion
      • Dr. Markus Egert : Probiotics, a complementary therapeutic option
    Created 22 April 2021
    Updated 22 July 2024

    About this article

    To know more about this topic.

    Main topic

    Skin health

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    Dossier detail
    Skin under triple influences : gut, brain, skin microbiota
    Factors affecting the skin microbiota
    Focus

    Skin under triple influences : gut, brain, skin microbiota

    The skin microbiota

    A unique set of skin microbiota for each individual Factors affecting the skin microbiota Functions of the microbiota and its interactions with the host

    Skin diseases associated with a dysbiosis

    Skin diseases associated with a dysbiosis Non-pathological skin conditions associated with a dysbiosis

    The gut-skin axis

    Psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, rosacea: gut-skin axis involved A gut-brain-skin axis?

    Modulating the skin microbiota

    Modulating the skin microbiota via topical applications Modulating the skin microbiota with oral solutions

    Expert opinion

    Dr. Markus Egert : Probiotics, a complementary therapeutic option
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