The emergence of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs (sidenote: Multidrug-Resistant Organisms (MDROs) Bacteria that are resistant to multiple antimicrobial drugs.
  Source: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.abo2750  ) ) poses a formidable challenge in healthcare, particularly among immunocompromised patients such as those undergoing kidney transplantation. A recent randomized controlled trial has shed light on Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT (sidenote: Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT) A therapeutic procedure to restore the gut microbiota by transferring fecal bacteria from a healthy donor to a recipient. Explore https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.abo2750 ) ) as a promising intervention to diminish MDRO colonization in this vulnerable population. The trial involved a meticulous evaluation of FMT's safety, efficacy, and the dynamics of MDRO strain elimination, with compelling outcomes.

Efficacious elimination and engraftment

The study was conducted at the Emory University Hospital, involving a 1:1 randomization of eleven kidney transplant recipients to either an FMT group (n= 6) or an observation group (n= 5), followed by a subsequent FMT for any participants, regardless of initial group assignment, who remained positive for MDROs after the first intervention (day 36), to further assess the efficacy and potential of FMT in eliminating resistant bacterial strains.

The study observed an impressive success rate, with 8 out of 9 patients who received all protocol-specified showing negative results for MDROs post-FMT. This success was attributed to the engraftment of beneficial taxa from the donor, including Akkermansia muciniphila and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, into the recipients' gut microbiota. These taxa are known for their beneficial roles in the human gut, suggesting a targeted approach to bolstering the recipient's microbiota against MDRO colonization.

A displacement not a replacement

Expanding on the key aspect of how MDRO strains were displaced, the study conducted an in-depth analysis revealing that the introduction of competitive, conspecific bacterial strains from the donor material played a crucial role. This displacement process was not merely a replacement but a strategic displacement leveraging the microbial competition within the gut microbiome. The researchers meticulously reviewed gene content differences between baseline and replacing strains for groups of conspecific isolates, focusing on genes anticipated to enhance strain competition or host cell surface adhesion.

Significant findings were observed in the gene content analysis, particularly concerning colicins, a subset of bacteriocins produced by E. coli that exhibit toxicity towards other E. coli strains and close relatives. Experimental data have shown that colicin-producing E. coli strains can outcompete colicin-susceptible strains, which in turn may be outcompeted by colicin-resistant strains, demonstrating a complex nontransitive competition dynamic similar to a “rock-paper-scissors game”. This dynamic was evident in the study's findings where susceptible replacing strains, possessed multiple colicin and colicin immunity genes absent in the antibiotic-resistant strains.

These findings illustrate the multifaceted nature of FMT's impact on microbial ecology within the gut, highlighting that the displacement of MDROs by FMT involves a complex interplay of microbial competition, genetic determinants of competitiveness, and the gut environment's selective pressures.

Binge eating of fatty and sugary foods is classically observed in patients with eating disorders. For those with binge eating disorder (sidenote: Binge eating disorder Binge eating disorder is an eating disorder whose diagnosis is based on:

• clinical criteria : binge eating, on average at least once a week for three months; feeling of lack of control over eating.
 
• and on the presence of three or more of the following five criteria: eating much more quickly than normal; eating to the point of feeling uncomfortable; eating large quantities of food without physically feeling hungry; eating alone because of shame; feeling disgusted, depressed or guilty about having eaten too much.
 
  Binge eating behavior is a source of marked suffering. 

  Source: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition Text Revision, DSM-5-TRTM, Feeding and eating disorders. ) , these episodes go hand in hand with unhappiness and excess weight, even obesity. It seems that the gut microbiota is involved. But what are the mechanisms involved? What are the effects of this eating disorder on the gut microbiota, and of the latter on behavior? To find out, researchers ¹ have deciphered the gut-brain axis step by step.

Binge eating and gut dysbiosis

After stress and dieting, mice, like humans, are more inclined to nibble on highly appetizing cookies, increase their calorie intake, and indulge in binge eating. This behavior seems to be linked to the rodents' gut microbiota, whose diversity and richness are altered, with a loss of Lactobacillus and Ruminococcaceae and an increase in Bacteroides, Roseburia and Alistipes.

Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) experiments suggest that the flora of the hyperphagic mice is depleted in protective bacteria: FMT from healthy mice causes hyperphagic mice to stop binge eating, suggesting the return of protective bacteria; conversely, FMT from hyperphagic mice to healthy mice does not induce binge eating, suggesting the absence of bacteria inducing this disorder.

Deciphering the mechanisms

Additional experiments show that binge eating in mice originates from disinhibition of the vagus nerve, leading to hyperactivation of the gut-brain axis, passing through the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus (associated with reward, motivation and energy homeostasis) and the nucleus of the solitary tract. The trigger could be low production of a gut microbial metabolite, kynurenic acid (KYNA), in hyperphagic mice. Giving the mice KYNA supplements is enough to put them back on the road to a balanced diet.

What if all it took was a probiotic?

To confirm the results of the mouse model, the researchers analyzed fecal samples from eleven patients with binge eating disorder and nine healthy controls. The patients' microbiota showed a loss of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii (family Ruminococcaceae) and a drop in KYNA levels. There is every reason to believe that a reduction in F. prausnitzii could accompany a reduction in luminal KYNA and consequent eating disorders triggered via the gut-brain axis. This hypothesis seems to be confirmed in animals: inoculation of hyperphagic mice with F. prausnitzii raises KYNA levels and reduces their attraction to cookies and their binge eating.

Whole packs of cakes, chocolate bars...during an episode of binge eating, everything within reach, especially fatty and sugary foods, is swallowed in a hurry, often on the sly, to the point of stomachache. This uncontrollable overeating ends in shame and guilt, and contributes to an excessive caloric intake that induces overweight or even obesity in patients with this disorder, known as binge eating disorder (sidenote: Binge eating disorder Binge eating disorder is an eating disorder whose diagnosis is based on:

• clinical criteria : binge eating, on average at least once a week for three months; feeling of lack of control over eating.
 
• and on the presence of three or more of the following five criteria: eating much more quickly than normal; eating to the point of feeling uncomfortable; eating large quantities of food without physically feeling hungry; eating alone because of shame; feeling disgusted, depressed or guilty about having eaten too much.
 
  Binge eating behavior is a source of marked suffering. 

  Source: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition Text Revision, DSM-5-TRTM, Feeding and eating disorders. ) . Stress and repeated dieting are thought to contribute to this disorder. In fact, mice subjected to such conditions end up gorging themselves on Oreo® cookies. The study ¹ of such animals has nevertheless enabled us to decipher the underlying mechanisms, and to envisage possible solutions.

Mechanisms deciphered

A long series of experiments carried out on these rodents, as well as an analysis of the flora of patients with binge eating disorder, revealed that the combination of stress and dieting altered the gut microbiota, causing in particular the loss, in rodents as in humans, of a bacterium called Faecalibacterium prausnitzii. The consequence of the low presence of this bacterium is a low production of a small molecule called KYNA (short for kynurenic acid). Small but mighty: when production is down, nothing goes right! 

Too little KYNA sounds the alarm in the vagus nerve, which sends warning signals to two brain areas involved in eating behavior...and our mouse pounces on the Oreos®! Thus, the loss of F. prausnitzii and variations in the concentration of KYNA in their guts are enough to trigger binge eating in rodents by stimulating the gut-brain axis.

New treatment options?

However, there is some good news. Supplementing hyperphagic mice with F. prausnitzii bacteria is enough to reduce their binge eating. The same goes for taking KYNA: in fact, the more KYNA they are given, the more their binge eating episodes disappear. Another option, a little less appealing at first sight: fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) (sidenote: Fecal transplantation This therapeutic procedure consists in placing stool from a healthy donor in a patient’s digestive tract in order to restore the balance of their intestinal flora. For the time being, it is only approved for the treatment of recurrent Clostridioides difficile infections. Quigley EMM, Gajula P. Recent advances in modulating the microbiome. F1000Res. 2020;9:F1000 Faculty Rev-46. ) from healthy mice is enough to stop the mice from binge eating.

As such, probiotics, KYNA and/or FMT could perhaps one day play a part in the treatment of patients with binge eating disorder, which affects 3.5% of women and 2% of men. But before this can be achieved, more studies are still needed, in particular to confirm that these results in mice can be reproduced in humans.

A basic principle in biology is adaptation to the environment through natural selection. This is often illustrated by a small insect: the peppered moth. As they are mostly white, these moths were long unnoticed by predators as they rested on the immaculate trunks of birch trees. But the industrial revolution changed all that. The trunks turned black, the white moths were as plain as the nose on your face, the birds feasted, and the population of white moths plummeted. The only survivors were the now-invisible black moths, which then reproduced. And so the peppered moth became mostly black under environmental pressure.

Fungi adapted to our body heat ¹

The same mechanism is at work with global warming. Faced with successive exceptional heat waves, flora and fauna evolve, with the most tolerant individuals being selected. Some fungi, for example, are increasingly able to cope with temperatures in excess of 30°C / 86°F over successive generations. The problem: our body temperature of 37°C / 98.6°F was one of our two weapons (along with the immune system) for resisting fungal attacks!

How will humans, and mammals in general, cope with more heat-resistant pathogens? Unfortunately, the question is no longer purely theoretical: heat-tolerant Candida auris appeared simultaneously and inexplicably on three continents in 2010.

Global warming and health: humans adapt, pathogens adapt as well ²

The struggle will be all the harder because, at the same time, humankind, like all living organisms, is already suffering the consequences of global warming. And while we await future descendants that may be more resistant to the extreme temperatures of today and tomorrow, climate change is likely to have a major impact on our digestive, immune and even mental health (eco-anxiety). The totality of exposures to which an individual is subjected from conception to death is called the "exposome (sidenote: Exposome It was in 2005, in an article published in the journal Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, that Dr. Christopher Wild first defined the exposome as "life-course environmental exposures (including lifestyle factors), from the prenatal period onwards. It is a complex and dynamic representation that integrates the chemical, microbiological, physical, recreational and medicinal environments, lifestyle, diet and infections."
Source ) ." 

In terms of infections, the future is just as turbulent: over 50% of infectious diseases are expected to be exacerbated by climate change, and a 10% increase in diarrheal diseases (contamination of drinking water during floods, high temperatures favoring certain viruses, etc.) is expected by 2030.

In short, we would have to cope with a multiplicity of infections, with impaired health. And paradoxically, treating these pathologies would increase our carbon footprint...and thus also our eco-anxiety?

As data controller, the company Biocodex, established in France at 22 rue des Aqueducs in Gentilly (94250) (hereinafter, the “Controller”), undertakes to comply with the regulatory provisions applicable to the protection of personal data, in particular Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of April 27, 2016 – General Data Protection Regulation (hereinafter, the “GDPR”), on the processing that it implements on the Biocodex Microbiota Institute’s website, accessible at www.biocodexmicrobiotainstitute.com (hereinafter, the “Website”).

Definitions

With reference to Article 4 of the GDPR, the following definitions apply:

"Personal data" means any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person; an "identifiable natural person" is deemed to be a natural person who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identifier, such as a name, an identification number, location data, an online identifier, or to one or more factors specific to his or her physical, physiological, genetic, mental, economic, cultural or social identity.

• This includes, for example, any information concerning the user of the Website, such as surname, first name, e-mail address, etc.
  "Processing" means any operation or set of operations, whether or not carried out using automated processes, applied to personal data or sets of personal data.
• This refers to the Website or a service offered on the Website, such as the management of the users’ requests.
  "Data controller" means the natural or legal person, public authority, department or other body which, alone or jointly with others, determines the purposes and means of processing.
• The publisher of the Website acts as data controller.
  "Data processor" means the natural or legal person, public authority, department or other body that processes personal data on behalf of the data controller.
• For example, the Website host acts as data processor on behalf of the Website publisher.
  "Recipient" means the natural or legal person, public authority, department or other body that receives personal data, whether or not it is a third party.
• This may include the publisher staff authorized to manage the Website.

Generalities

The User is free to browse the Website without having to explicitly provide any personal information. However, he/she may be asked to provide personal data, for example by contacting the Controller. In addition, the Website uses "cookies", which may send data concerning the User to third-party companies.

The Website, as well as each service offered on the Website, limits the collection of personal data to what is strictly necessary and is accompanied by information detailing in particular:

• The purpose of the processing of personal data,
• The legal basis for the processing,
• The source of the data (if not supplied by the Website user),
• Whether data collection is mandatory or optional,
• Recipients of the data,
• Data retention period,
• Whether data is transferred outside the European Union,
• The rights of the individual to his or her data and how to exercise them.

Security measures

The Controller takes all necessary precautions to protect the security of the Website user's personal data, and in particular to prevent it from being distorted, damaged or accessed by unauthorized third parties.

In addition, the Website has an SSL certificate to secure data exchanges between the user and the Website.

GDPR rights

In accordance with the GDPR, the user of the Website has a right of access, rectification, deletion, portability, limitation and opposition to the data concerning him/her, which he/she may exercise, under the conditions provided by the GDPR, with the Data Protection Officer (DPO) of Biocodex (in English if French is not possible), via the e-mail address dpo[at]biocodex.com (replace "[at]" with "@") or by post: DPO BIOCODEX, 22 rue des Aqueducs, 94250 GENTILLY, France; he/she also has the right to lodge a complaint with a supervisory authority (please see https://edpb.europa.eu/about-edpb/about-edpb/members_en).

Website management

What is the purpose of the processing and what is its legal basis?

The purpose of processing personal data is to manage the Website. It enables the Controller:

• The preparation and publication of content;
• Putting services on line for users;
• Technical administration, in conjunction with the service providers involved in processing;
• Security management;
• Production of statistics on audience and use of online services.

With reference to Article 6(1)(f) of the GDPR, the processing is necessary for the purposes of the legitimate interests pursued by the Controller (promote research on microbiota and their interaction with various pathologies).

What data is processed, where they come from and how long are they kept?

The categories of data processed are:

• Data relating to the persons who are the subject of publications (identity, functions, contact details, etc.);
• Data relating to browsing on the Website (time stamps, users' IP addresses, technical data relating to the equipment and browser used by users, geolocation, cookies) and on digital platforms via share buttons and media (cookies and other tracers);
• Data relating to the management of services offered to users;
• Data relating to the management of publications (purpose, deliverables, follow-up, statistics);
• Data relating to the management of technical services (time-stamping and purpose of requests, tracking, follow-up, statistics);
• Website audience and online services usage statistics.

Data may come from:

• The Controller staff in charge of publishing content and technical administration of the Website;
• Contributors to publications;
• Website users;
• Staff of the service providers concerned;
• Third-party sites (websites, social networks, search engines, etc.).

Data collected during browsing, which is not necessary for the operation of the Website (such as some types of cookies), is optional. Unless otherwise specified, all other data collected is mandatory.

Data retention:

• Published data is kept online until the site is closed, after which it is archived for 5 years;
• Data relating to exchanges with service providers are kept for 5 years after the end of the contractual relationship;
• Unless required by law, or unless there is a particularly high risk, log data is kept for up to 6 months;
• The data required to produce statistics on the audience and use of online services is kept in a format that does not allow individuals to be identified by their IP address, and includes an identifier (relating to the cookie) kept for a maximum of 13 months (unless the person concerned objects).

Who is the data intended for?

Depending on their respective needs, the following are recipients of all or part of the data:

• The Controller staff in charge of content publication and technical administration of the Website;
• Staff of the service providers concerned;
• Website users;
• Staff responsible for supervising the security of the Controller’s information systems.

Due to their presence on the Internet, publications may be accessible outside the European Union.

Management of requests

What is the purpose of the processing and what is its legal basis?

The purpose of processing personal data is to manage requests and reports made on the Website. It enables the Controller:

• Receive requests/notifications;
• Manage the follow-up of correspondence;
• Drawing up anonymous activity statistics.

With reference to Article 6(1)(f) of the GDPR, the processing is necessary for the purposes of the legitimate interests pursued by the Controller (collecting requests and reports from users from its websites).

What data is processed and how long are they kept?

The categories of data processed concerning the sender are:

• Identity: e-mail address;
• Subject and body of the message.

Unless otherwise specified, all data is mandatory.

Data is kept for up to 5 years from the time the request is processed. If the request concerns an adverse reaction, a medical question or a product quality complaint, data retention is defined in the specific subsequent processing.

Who is the data intended for?

Depending on their respective needs, the following are recipients of all or part of the data:

• Controller staff responsible for:
  • processing requests;
  • health vigilance, medical information or product quality complaints (where applicable);
  • data protection (where applicable).

Subscription to the newsletter

What is the purpose of the processing and what is its legal basis?

The Controller allows the User to subscribe to the Website’s newsletter, in order to be kept informed of the news associated with the Website and to download documents. This processing of personal data allows the Controller to:

• Manage subscriptions and electronic mailings;
• Develop service statistics.

With reference to Article 6(1)(a) of the GDPR, the data subject has given consent to the processing of his / her personal data.

By subscribing to the newsletter, the User agrees to the confidential and secure processing of her/his data in the unified marketing campaign management solution implemented by the Controller and, as a result, he agrees to be profiled. As such, he may or may not accept to receive other communications and commercial offers from the Controller.

The User may unsubscribe (withdraw consent) via the unsubscribe link in the communications received.

What data is processed and how long are they kept?

The categories of data processed concerning the sender are:

• Identity: e-mail address;
• Subscription date;
• Statistics related to the Digital Marketing Campaign Service.

The collection of the e-mail address is mandatory for the sending of communications from the Controller.

The Controller retains the e-mail address as long as the person concerned does not unsubscribe (via the unsubscribe link included in the newsletters).

Who is the data intended for?

Depending on their respective needs, the following are recipients of all or part of the data:

• The User of the Website subscribed to the newsletter;
• The Controller’s staff in charge of managing the newsletter service, publishing content, technical administration of the Website;
• The personnel of the service providers concerned by the Website.

As the newsletter service may be provided by a third party, the data may be transmitted outside the European Union.

About cookies

The Controller uses various computer "cookies" on the Website to measure the audience and integrate services to improve the interactivity of the Website.

What is a computer "cookie"?

A computer "cookie" is a text file that may be deposited on a user's terminal during browsing on a website. Cookies are an important tool enabling organizations to gain an overview of their users' online activity.

How it works: generally small in size and identified by a name, it is transmitted to the user's browser by the website visited. The browser stores it for a certain period of time, and sends it back to the website each time it is reconnected. In principle, cookies can be easily viewed and deleted.

In themselves, cookies are harmless, as they contain no executable code. They perform important functions for websites: they can be used to memorize a customer account identifier, browsing preferences, enable browsing to be tracked for statistical or advertising purposes, and so on.

However, cookies can store enough data to identify a user without his or her consent and, in some cases, can be used to create profiles of individuals. This is why it is essential that cookie management is controlled within the framework of data protection.

What are the different types of cookies?

In general, cookies can be classified in three different ways: by origin, by lifetime and by purpose.

Origin

First-party cookies - These cookies are placed on the visitor's terminal directly by the website being visited.

Third-party cookies - These cookies are placed on the visitor's terminal by a third-party organization, such as an advertiser.

Lifetime

Session cookies - These cookies are temporary and expire when the browser is closed or at the end of the visit (session).

Persistent cookies - This category includes all cookies that remain on the visitor's terminal until they are deleted. They may be deleted manually or automatically (depending on the expiration date of the cookie, or when the browser is closed if so configured).

Purpose

Strictly necessary cookies - These cookies help to make a website usable by enabling basic functions such as page navigation, access to secure areas of the site, or storing items in an online shopping cart. The website cannot function properly without these cookies.

Preference cookies (functionality cookies) - These cookies enable a website to retain information that modifies the way the site behaves or displays, such as the visitor's preferred language or the region in which he or she is located.

Statistical cookies (performance cookies) - These cookies help the website owner, through the collection and communication of information, to understand how visitors interact with the site, such as which pages are visited and which links are used. The aim is to subsequently improve the website. Although intended for use by the website owner, these cookies may come from third-party organizations that may track the visitor for marketing purposes.

Marketing cookies - These cookies track the user's online activity to help, for example, advertisers deliver more relevant ads. These cookies may share this information with other organizations or advertisers. These cookies are persistent and almost always come from third parties.

How can I control the placement of cookies?

In general, website users can prevent cookies from being deposited on their terminal, or delete existing ones, by configuring their web browser accordingly. For instructions on how to manage cookies, please refer to your browser's help section.

• Please note, however, that blocking the deposit of cookies in your web browser may lead to malfunctions on the Website, as well as on other websites.

What types of cookies are used on the Website?

Internal cookies storing the result of user consent

These cookies are deposited directly by the Website and enable the User's choices on the deposit of third-party cookies to be retained.

"Didomi token (didomi_token)":

• Purpose: contains consent information for personalized purposes and for personalized partners, as well as information specific to Didomi (user ID, for example) ;
• Maximum retention period: 6 months.

"Consent string (euconsent-v2)":

• Purpose: contains the IAB TCF consent string (*) as well as consent information for all IAB standards (partners and purposes);
• Maximum retention period: 6 months.

(*) For more information: https://iabeurope.eu/transparency-consent-framework/

Third-party cookies 

The Website relies on certain services offered by third parties. These may include, for example, audience measurement services, video hosting services, etc.

The purposes served by these third parties use cookies deposited directly by these services. Via these cookies, these third parties may collect and use the user's browsing data on their own behalf in order to offer, for example, targeted advertising and content based on the user's browsing history. For further information, the User can consult the privacy policy of these third parties via the cookie management module set up on the Website.

By default, these third-party cookies are not stored. The User is informed of the third-party cookies used and can consent to their deposit in the cookie management module or directly via a contextual consent request, for example by activating the playback of an external video. He/she can indicate its preferences, either globally for the Website, or service by service. He/she can reverse its choices at any time by calling up the cookie management module via a permanent link at the bottom of the page.

Data collected by third-party cookies may be transferred outside the European Union.

As data controller, the company Biocodex, established in France at 22 rue des Aqueducs in Gentilly (94250) (hereinafter, the “Controller”), undertakes to comply with the regulatory provisions applicable to the protection of personal data, in particular Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of April 27, 2016 – General Data Protection Regulation (hereinafter, the “GDPR”), on the processing that it implements on the Biocodex Microbiota Institute’s website, accessible at www.biocodexmicrobiotainstitute.com (hereinafter, the “Website”).

Définitions

With reference to Article 4 of the GDPR, the following definitions apply:

• "Personal data" means any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person; an "identifiable natural person" is deemed to be a natural person who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identifier, such as a name, an identification number, location data, an online identifier, or to one or more factors specific to his or her physical, physiological, genetic, mental, economic, cultural or social identity.
  This includes, for example, any information concerning the user of the Website, such as surname, first name, e-mail address, etc.
• "Processing" means any operation or set of operations, whether or not carried out using automated processes, applied to personal data or sets of personal data.
  This refers to the Website or a service offered on the Website, such as the management of the users’ requests.
• "Data controller" means the natural or legal person, public authority, department or other body which, alone or jointly with others, determines the purposes and means of processing.
  The publisher of the Website acts as data controller.
• "Data processor" means the natural or legal person, public authority, department or other body that processes personal data on behalf of the data controller.
  For example, the Website host acts as data processor on behalf of the Website publisher.
• "Recipient" means the natural or legal person, public authority, department or other body that receives personal data, whether or not it is a third party.
  This may include the publisher staff authorized to manage the Website.

Generalities

The User is free to browse the Website without having to explicitly provide any personal information. However, he/she may be asked to provide personal data, for example by contacting the Controller. In addition, the Website uses "cookies", which may send data concerning the User to third-party companies.

The Website, as well as each service offered on the Website, limits the collection of personal data to what is strictly necessary and is accompanied by information detailing in particular:

• The purpose of the processing of personal data,
• The legal basis for the processing,
• The source of the data (if not supplied by the Website user),
• Whether data collection is mandatory or optional,
• Recipients of the data,
• Data retention period,
• Whether data is transferred outside the European Union,
• The rights of the individual to his or her data and how to exercise them.

Security measures

The Controller takes all necessary precautions to protect the security of the Website user's personal data, and in particular to prevent it from being distorted, damaged or accessed by unauthorized third parties.

In addition, the Website has an SSL certificate to secure data exchanges between the user and the Website.

GDPR rights

In accordance with the GDPR, the user of the Website has a right of access, rectification, deletion, portability, limitation and opposition to the data concerning him/her, which he/she may exercise, under the conditions provided by the GDPR, with the Data Protection Officer (DPO) of Biocodex (in English if French is not possible), via the e-mail address dpo[at]biocodex.com (replace "[at]" with "@") or by post: DPO BIOCODEX, 22 rue des Aqueducs, 94250 GENTILLY, France; he/she also has the right to lodge a complaint with a supervisory authority (please see https://edpb.europa.eu/about-edpb/about-edpb/members_en).

Website management

What is the purpose of the processing and what is its legal basis?

The purpose of processing personal data is to manage the Website. It enables the Controller:

• The preparation and publication of content;
• Putting services on line for users;
• Technical administration, in conjunction with the service providers involved in processing;
• Security management;
• Production of statistics on audience and use of online services.

With reference to Article 6(1)(f) of the GDPR, the processing is necessary for the purposes of the legitimate interests pursued by the Controller (promote research on microbiota and their interaction with various pathologies).

What data is processed, where they come from and how long are they kept?

The categories of data processed are:

• Data relating to the persons who are the subject of publications (identity, functions, contact details, etc.);
• Data relating to browsing on the Website (time stamps, users' IP addresses, technical data relating to the equipment and browser used by users, geolocation, cookies) and on digital platforms via share buttons and media (cookies and other tracers);
• Data relating to the management of services offered to users;
• Data relating to the management of publications (purpose, deliverables, follow-up, statistics);
• Data relating to the management of technical services (time-stamping and purpose of requests, tracking, follow-up, statistics);
• Website audience and online services usage statistics.

Data may come from:

• The Controller staff in charge of publishing content and technical administration of the Website;
• Contributors to publications;
• Website users;
• Staff of the service providers concerned;
• Third-party sites (websites, social networks, search engines, etc.).

Data collected during browsing, which is not necessary for the operation of the Website (such as some types of cookies), is optional. Unless otherwise specified, all other data collected is mandatory.

Data retention:

• Published data is kept online until the site is closed, after which it is archived for 5 years;
• Data relating to exchanges with service providers are kept for 5 years after the end of the contractual relationship;
• Unless required by law, or unless there is a particularly high risk, log data is kept for up to 6 months;
• The data required to produce statistics on the audience and use of online services is kept in a format that does not allow individuals to be identified by their IP address, and includes an identifier (relating to the cookie) kept for a maximum of 13 months (unless the person concerned objects).

Who is the data intended for?

Depending on their respective needs, the following are recipients of all or part of the data:

• The Controller staff in charge of content publication and technical administration of the Website;
• Staff of the service providers concerned;
• Website users;
• Staff responsible for supervising the security of the Controller’s information systems.

Due to their presence on the Internet, publications may be accessible outside the European Union.

Management of requests

What is the purpose of the processing and what is its legal basis?

The purpose of processing personal data is to manage requests and reports made on the Website. It enables the Controller:

• Receive requests/notifications;
• Manage the follow-up of correspondence;
• Drawing up anonymous activity statistics.

With reference to Article 6(1)(f) of the GDPR, the processing is necessary for the purposes of the legitimate interests pursued by the Controller (collecting requests and reports from users from its websites).

What data is processed and how long are they kept?

The categories of data processed concerning the sender are:

• Identity: e-mail address;
• Subject and body of the message.

Unless otherwise specified, all data is mandatory.

Data is kept for up to 5 years from the time the request is processed. If the request concerns an adverse reaction, a medical question or a product quality complaint, data retention is defined in the specific subsequent processing.

Who is the data intended for?

Depending on their respective needs, the following are recipients of all or part of the data:

• Controller staff responsible for:
  • processing requests;
  • health vigilance, medical information or product quality complaints (where applicable);
  • data protection (where applicable).

Subscription to the newsletter

What is the purpose of the processing and what is its legal basis?

The Controller allows the User to subscribe to the Website’s newsletter, in order to be kept informed of the news associated with the Website and to download documents. This processing of personal data allows the Controller to:

• Manage subscriptions and electronic mailings;
• Develop service statistics.

With reference to Article 6(1)(a) of the GDPR, the data subject has given consent to the processing of his / her personal data.

By subscribing to the newsletter, the User agrees to the confidential and secure processing of her/his data in the unified marketing campaign management solution implemented by the Controller and, as a result, he agrees to be profiled. As such, he may or may not accept to receive other communications and commercial offers from the Controller.

The User may unsubscribe (withdraw consent) via the unsubscribe link in the communications received.

What data is processed and how long are they kept?

The categories of data processed concerning the sender are:

• Identity: e-mail address;
• Subscription date;
• Statistics related to the Digital Marketing Campaign Service.

The collection of the e-mail address is mandatory for the sending of communications from the Controller.

The Controller retains the e-mail address as long as the person concerned does not unsubscribe (via the unsubscribe link included in the newsletters).

Who is the data intended for?

Depending on their respective needs, the following are recipients of all or part of the data:

• The User of the Website subscribed to the newsletter;
• The Controller’s staff in charge of managing the newsletter service, publishing content, technical administration of the Website;
• The personnel of the service providers concerned by the Website.

As the newsletter service may be provided by a third party, the data may be transmitted outside the European Union.

About cookies

The Controller uses various computer "cookies" on the Website to measure the audience and integrate services to improve the interactivity of the Website.

What is a computer "cookie"?

A computer "cookie" is a text file that may be deposited on a user's terminal during browsing on a website. Cookies are an important tool enabling organizations to gain an overview of their users' online activity.

How it works: generally small in size and identified by a name, it is transmitted to the user's browser by the website visited. The browser stores it for a certain period of time, and sends it back to the website each time it is reconnected. In principle, cookies can be easily viewed and deleted.

In themselves, cookies are harmless, as they contain no executable code. They perform important functions for websites: they can be used to memorize a customer account identifier, browsing preferences, enable browsing to be tracked for statistical or advertising purposes, and so on.

However, cookies can store enough data to identify a user without his or her consent and, in some cases, can be used to create profiles of individuals. This is why it is essential that cookie management is controlled within the framework of data protection.

What are the different types of cookies?

In general, cookies can be classified in three different ways: by origin, by lifetime and by purpose.

Origin

First-party cookies - These cookies are placed on the visitor's terminal directly by the website being visited.

Third-party cookies - These cookies are placed on the visitor's terminal by a third-party organization, such as an advertiser.

Lifetime

Session cookies - These cookies are temporary and expire when the browser is closed or at the end of the visit (session).

Persistent cookies - This category includes all cookies that remain on the visitor's terminal until they are deleted. They may be deleted manually or automatically (depending on the expiration date of the cookie, or when the browser is closed if so configured).

Purpose

Strictly necessary cookies - These cookies help to make a website usable by enabling basic functions such as page navigation, access to secure areas of the site, or storing items in an online shopping cart. The website cannot function properly without these cookies.

Preference cookies (functionality cookies) - These cookies enable a website to retain information that modifies the way the site behaves or displays, such as the visitor's preferred language or the region in which he or she is located.

Statistical cookies (performance cookies) - These cookies help the website owner, through the collection and communication of information, to understand how visitors interact with the site, such as which pages are visited and which links are used. The aim is to subsequently improve the website. Although intended for use by the website owner, these cookies may come from third-party organizations that may track the visitor for marketing purposes.

Marketing cookies - These cookies track the user's online activity to help, for example, advertisers deliver more relevant ads. These cookies may share this information with other organizations or advertisers. These cookies are persistent and almost always come from third parties.

How can I control the placement of cookies?

In general, website users can prevent cookies from being deposited on their terminal, or delete existing ones, by configuring their web browser accordingly. For instructions on how to manage cookies, please refer to your browser's help section.

• Please note, however, that blocking the deposit of cookies in your web browser may lead to malfunctions on the Website, as well as on other websites.

What types of cookies are used on the Website?

Internal cookies storing the result of user consent

These cookies are deposited directly by the Website and enable the User's choices on the deposit of third-party cookies to be retained.

"Didomi token (didomi_token)":

- Purpose: contains consent information for personalized purposes and for personalized partners, as well as information specific to Didomi (user ID, for example) ;

- Maximum retention period: 6 months.

Third-party cookies 

The Website relies on certain services offered by third parties. These may include, for example, audience measurement services, video hosting services, etc.

The purposes served by these third parties use cookies deposited directly by these services. Via these cookies, these third parties may collect and use the user's browsing data on their own behalf in order to offer, for example, targeted advertising and content based on the user's browsing history. For further information, the User can consult the privacy policy of these third parties via the cookie management module set up on the Website.

By default, these third-party cookies are not stored. The User is informed of the third-party cookies used and can consent to their deposit in the cookie management module or directly via a contextual consent request, for example by activating the playback of an external video. He/she can indicate its preferences, either globally for the Website, or service by service. He/she can reverse its choices at any time by calling up the cookie management module via a permanent link at the bottom of the page.

Data collected by third-party cookies may be transferred outside the European Union.

Welcome to the Biocodex Microbiota Institute’s website!
This website is intended for the health professionals and the general public.
 

Important notice

The purpose of these General Terms of Use (hereinafter, the "GTU") is to define the terms and conditions governing the provision and use of the content and services of the Biocodex Microbiota Institute’s website, accessible at www.biocodexmicrobiotainstitute.com (hereinafter, the "Website") between Biocodex - publisher of the Website (hereinafter, the "Publisher") and the user of the Website (hereinafter, the "User").

The access to the Website and its content, as well as the use of the services offered by the Website, implies the User's unreserved acceptance of these GTU. Without acceptance, the User is not authorized to access the Website.

As the GTU may be modified at any time and without prior notice, the User is invited to consult them regularly.

Purpose of the Website and access to services

The Website is intended to provide useful information to better understand the various microbiota and their importance to human health. Its content has been drafted by a team of content creators and editorial staff who are not health professionals based on reference works and bibliographic data. Content has been validated by qualified health personnel.

Information provided by the Website does not in any manner replace medical advice.

The Website is accessible from any location and to any User with an Internet connection. All costs associated with access to the Website (hardware, software, internet connection, etc.) are the responsibility of the User.

The Publisher makes every effort to ensure quality access to the Website and its services. However, this is an obligation of means and not of result: the User therefore undertakes not to claim any compensation from the Publisher and its suppliers if the Website is not available at the time the User wishes to access it.

Access to the Website and its services may be interrupted, suspended, or modified at any time and without notice, for maintenance or any other reason.

The Publisher shall not be liable for any damage resulting from interference, interruptions, computer viruses, terminal malfunctions or disconnections that may temporarily prevent the User's access or browsing.

Although the Publisher has taken the greatest care in creating the Website, it may nevertheless contain inaccuracies. The User is invited to inform the Publisher of any suggestions for improvement.

Responsabilities

The Publisher endeavors to provide quality and verified information. However, information sources cannot be fully guaranteed. 

Any "outbound" links present on the Website enable the User to access information and other complementary resources available on the Internet, or to share information on social networks. The Publisher has no means of controlling the content of these totally independent third-party websites and cannot therefore be held responsible for the consequences of accessing these third-party websites and their content.

The User may only set up a hypertext link to the Website with the express prior authorization of the Publisher.

Intellectual property

The Website is protected by intellectual property law.

The Website, all its components (such as logos, texts, photographs, images, PDF files, videos, etc.), as well as the domain name(s), are the exclusive property of the Publisher. 

Duplication or reproduction of all or part of the Website or any of its component parts is authorized for private use only. Any partial or total duplication or reproduction of the Website or any of its constituent parts on any medium and in any manner whatsoever for other purposes, in particular commercial purposes, without the formal authorization of the Publisher and/or the holder of the rights is prohibited and constitutes an infringement punishable by law. £

The brands and logos appearing on the Website are registered trademarks (semi-figurative or not). In addition, the images appearing on the Website are protected by copyright. Any partial or total reproduction of these images, trademarks, or logos from elements of the Website is not authorized without the prior written consent of the Publisher.

Health vigilance

To report an undesirable effect, as well as any medical question or product quality complaint, please use the Biocodex’s Notification Center accessible at https://www.biocoreport.com/

Data protection

Being established within the European Union, the Publisher undertakes to comply with the regulations applicable to the protection of personal data, in particular Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of April 27, 2016 - General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

To find out how your data is processed and how you can exercise your rights, please follow the “Data Protection Policy” link in the Website footer.

Applicable law and jurisdiction

These GTU are governed by French law. Any dispute or difference of interpretation shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the French courts.

Welcome to the Biocodex Microbiota Institute’s website!
This website is intended for the health professionals and the general public.
 

Important notice

The purpose of these General Terms of Use (hereinafter, the "GTU") is to define the terms and conditions governing the provision and use of the content and services of the Biocodex Microbiota Institute’s website, accessible at www.biocodexmicrobiotainstitute.com (hereinafter, the "Website") between Biocodex - publisher of the Website (hereinafter, the "Publisher") and the user of the Website (hereinafter, the "User").

The access to the Website and its content, as well as the use of the services offered by the Website, implies the User's unreserved acceptance of these GTU. Without acceptance, the User is not authorized to access the Website.

As the GTU may be modified at any time and without prior notice, the User is invited to consult them regularly.

Purpose of the Website and access to services

The Website is intended to provide useful information to better understand the various microbiota and their importance to human health. Its content has been drafted by a team of content creators and editorial staff who are not health professionals based on reference works and bibliographic data. Content has been validated by qualified health personnel.

Information provided by the Website does not in any manner replace medical advice.

The Website is accessible from any location and to any User with an Internet connection. All costs associated with access to the Website (hardware, software, internet connection, etc.) are the responsibility of the User.

The Publisher makes every effort to ensure quality access to the Website and its services. However, this is an obligation of means and not of result: the User therefore undertakes not to claim any compensation from the Publisher and its suppliers if the Website is not available at the time the User wishes to access it.

Access to the Website and its services may be interrupted, suspended, or modified at any time and without notice, for maintenance or any other reason.

The Publisher shall not be liable for any damage resulting from interference, interruptions, computer viruses, terminal malfunctions or disconnections that may temporarily prevent the User's access or browsing.

Although the Publisher has taken the greatest care in creating the Website, it may nevertheless contain inaccuracies. The User is invited to inform the Publisher of any suggestions for improvement.

Responsabilities

The Publisher endeavors to provide quality and verified information. However, information sources cannot be fully guaranteed. 

Any "outbound" links present on the Website enable the User to access information and other complementary resources available on the Internet, or to share information on social networks. The Publisher has no means of controlling the content of these totally independent third-party websites and cannot therefore be held responsible for the consequences of accessing these third-party websites and their content.

The User may only set up a hypertext link to the Website with the express prior authorization of the Publisher.

Intellectual property

The Website is protected by intellectual property law.

The Website, all its components (such as logos, texts, photographs, images, PDF files, videos, etc.), as well as the domain name(s), are the exclusive property of the Publisher. 

Duplication or reproduction of all or part of the Website or any of its component parts is authorized for private use only. Any partial or total duplication or reproduction of the Website or any of its constituent parts on any medium and in any manner whatsoever for other purposes, in particular commercial purposes, without the formal authorization of the Publisher and/or the holder of the rights is prohibited and constitutes an infringement punishable by law. £

The brands and logos appearing on the Website are registered trademarks (semi-figurative or not). In addition, the images appearing on the Website are protected by copyright. Any partial or total reproduction of these images, trademarks, or logos from elements of the Website is not authorized without the prior written consent of the Publisher.

Health vigilance

To report an undesirable effect, as well as any medical question or product quality complaint, please use the Biocodex’s Notification Center accessible at https://www.biocoreport.com/

Data protection

Being established within the European Union, the Publisher undertakes to comply with the regulations applicable to the protection of personal data, in particular Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of April 27, 2016 - General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

To find out how your data is processed and how you can exercise your rights, please follow the “Data Protection Policy” link in the Website footer.

Applicable law and jurisdiction

These GTU are governed by French law. Any dispute or difference of interpretation shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the French courts.

Biocodex is a simplified joint stock company under French law with a share capital of €4,284,000, registered in the Trade and Companies Register under No. 562 064 600 R.C.S. Créteil, with its registered office at 22 rue des Aqueducs - 94250 Gentilly - France, represented by Mr Nicolas Coudurier, duly authorized in his capacity as CEO.

Intracommunity VAT n°: FR35562064600.

This legal notice applies to the Biocodex Microbiota Institute’s website, accessible at:

www.biocodexmicrobiotainstitute.com

Website publisher

BIOCODEX
22, rue des Aqueducs
94250 Gentilly
France
www.biocodexmicrobiotainstitute.com

Phone: +33 (0)1 41 24 30 00
E-mail: contact@biocodexmicrobiotainstitute.com

Publishing Director: Mr. Nicolas Coudurier, CEO.
Corporate Scientific communication Director: Mrs Murielle Escalmel.

Website host

AGENCE PROPAL
54, rue Hermel
75018 PARIS
France
https://propal.net/
Phone: +33 (0)1 77 15 67 36
E-mail: contact@propal.net  

Website credits

AGENCE PROPAL
54, rue Hermel
75018 PARIS
France
https://propal.net/
Phone: +33 (0)1 77 15 67 36
E-mail: contact@propal.net 

5E RUE
75, rue de Turbigo
75003 PARIS
France
https://www.5erue.com/fr 
Phone: +33 (0)1 43 56 09 81
E-mail: hello@5erue.com

Biocodex is a simplified joint stock company under French law with a share capital of €4,284,000, registered in the Trade and Companies Register under No. 562 064 600 R.C.S. Créteil, with its registered office at 22 rue des Aqueducs - 94250 Gentilly - France, represented by Mr Nicolas Coudurier, duly authorized in his capacity as CEO.

Intracommunity VAT n°: FR35562064600.

This legal notice applies to the Biocodex Microbiota Institute’s website, accessible at:

www.biocodexmicrobiotainstitute.com

Website publisher

BIOCODEX
22, rue des Aqueducs 
94250 Gentilly
France
www.biocodexmicrobiotainstitute.com

Phone: +33 (0)1 41 24 30 00
E-mail: contact@biocodexmicrobiotainstitute.com

Publishing Director: Mr. Nicolas Coudurier, CEO.
Corporate Scientific communication Director: Mrs Murielle Escalmel.

Website host

AGENCE PROPAL
54, rue Hermel
75018 PARIS
France
https://propal.net/
Phone: +33 (0)1 77 15 67 36
E-mail: contact@propal.net  

Website credits

AGENCE PROPAL
54, rue Hermel
75018 PARIS
France
https://propal.net/
Phone: +33 (0)1 77 15 67 36
E-mail: contact@propal.net 

5E RUE
75, rue de Turbigo
75003 PARIS
France
https://www.5erue.com/fr 
Phone: +33 (0)1 43 56 09 81
E-mail: hello@5erue.com